| In 1521, the King of Ormuz rebeled against the Portuguese, but the latter crushed the ribellion and put a new king on the throne. In 1523, Dom Luis de Menezes occupied Soar, which had revolted, and after this, he proceeded to Qeshm where a new treaty was done with the new King and a feitoria was established. In 1526, Lopo Vaz de Sampayo the Governor of Portuguese India (1526-1529), reduced to obedience Mascate and Khalat which had revolted. In 1542/43, the entire Customs duties of Ormuz were assigned to the King of Portugal. The years between 1550 and 1560 were years of continue warfare with the Turks for the supremacy in the Persian Gulf. In 1550/51, the Portuguese conquered to the Turks the fort of El Katiff (Al Qatif) in Arabia. In 1551/52, in order to help Ormuz's defence a fort was built in Mascate. The Turks, were determined to take revenge and in 1551/52 they attacked Mascate and sacked the town. In 1559, the Turks besieged the Portuguese fort of Bahrein, but after several months of siege, they were forced to withdraw. In 1581, Mascate was again destroied by the Turks. In 1582, the King of Lara (Larack an island near Ormuz), which had revolted, laid siege to the fortress of Ormuz, but the Portuguese succeeded in drive off the invaders and their in turn besieged the Lara's fort of Xamel which was taken by the Portuguese. Finally, in 1588, the Mascate's fortesses were again rebuilt, this time also the town was strenghten and in the nearby Matara (Matrah) a fort was also built. In 1602, Shah Abbas expelled the Portuguese from Bahrain. Ormuz used for its provisions of water the wells of Comorao, on the Persian coast, here the Portuguese had a fort, this fort was conquered by the Persian in 1615 (14?) . In 1616, Soar, which had revolted, was captured by a Portuguese fleet and the King was put to death. In 1619, the Portuguese fortress of Ormuz had a garrison of 500-700 soldiers. The fort of Khawr Fakkan (Corfaçao) was built in 1620 by Gaspar Leite. On 8 May 1621, Rui Freire de Andrada, the "General do Mar de Ormuz e costa da Persia e Arabia", began to build a fort in Queixome (Qeshm), this fort was built to have the controll of the island's water wells. The building of this fort was regarded as an act of open hostility by the Shah of Persia, that waged war against the Portuguese. In 1622, the Arabs, who had joined with the Persians, succeeded in capturing Julfar from the Portuguese. On 11 February 1622, the Portuguese fort of Queixome, after a feeble resistence, was forced to surrendered to a joined Persian-English army. On 20 Febraury 1622, the Persian flotilla of more than 3.000 men with the help of 6 English ships besieged the Portuguese fortress of Ormuz. Ormuz was lost by the Portuguese on 3 May 1622. The entire Portuguese population, about 2.000 persons, were sent to Mascate. During the decade after the fall of Ormuz, the Portuguese, under the command of Rui Freire de Andrada, tried several times (1623, 1624, 1625, 1627) to regain the fortress, the last attempt in 1631, was a diplomatic one, but all these attempts failed. After the loss of Ormuz the Portuguese established their base in Mascate, and in 1623, a feitoria (trading station) was established also in Bassora at the mouth of the Eufrate River. In 1623, Rui Freire reoccupied the fort of Soar, which had been taken in 1622 by the Persians. In the same year a new base is established in Cassapo (Kashab) in the Musandam Peninsula. Kalba (Quelba) was conquered by Gaspar Leite in 1624. The fort of Mada was conquered in May 1624 by Mateus de Siebra. In 1624/25, following a treaty with the Persians, a feitoria and a fortress was established in Congo (Bandar-e Kong), on the Persian coast of the Persic Gulf. In 1631, a Portuguese fortress was built in Julfar, important strategic point in Musandam Peninsula, this town enjoyed, during Portuguese rule, great prosperity as the regional trading entrepôt. In September 1633, Rui Freire de Andrada, the great protagonist of these years, died, and his body was buried in the church of St. Agostinho in Mascate. In 1633/35, treaties of peace were made with the English and the Persians. he Portuguese rule in the Perian Gulf was nearly more stable after the loss of Ormuz than before, infact were established several fortresses and feitorias in a lot of places as Soar, Julfar, Doba, Libedia, Mada, Khor Fakkan, Caçapo (Khasab), Congo (Kung), Bassora. In August 1648, the Arabs besieged Mascate and on 31October a treaty was signed between the two opponents. The terms were as follows: the Portuguese should raze to the ground the fortress of Kuriyat, Doba and Matara. In Janaury 1650, Mascate, the last Portuguese base in Arabia was taken by the Omanits. By the loss of Mascate, the Portuguese were deprived of their last stronghold in the vicinity of the Persian Gulf and this ended the so called "Portuguese period" in the Persian Gulf. BOOKS ON PORTUGUESE PRESENCE IN THE PERSIC GULF: - Al-Khalifa, Shaikh Abdullah Bin Khalid and Abahussain, Dr. Ali "Bahrain Through The Ages - Vol.2" Historical Documents Centre, 1995, Bahrain 1 The Carmathians of Bahrain; 2 The Ayounis; 3 The Zenk and the Selgrids; 4 The Juboors; 5 The Portuguese; 6 The Utoob; 7 Shaik Ahmed al Fateh; 8 Shaik Salman bin Ahmed al Khalifa; a General treaty of 1820; b Francis Loch’s diary; c Agreement of Bruce with al Qasimi. - Al Maamiry, Ahmed Hamoud "Omani - Portuguese history" 80 pp. ills. Lancers Publishers, 1982, New Delhi, India. Omanis and the Indian Ocean; the Portuguese and the Indian Ocean; the Portuguese supremacy; the Portuguese occupation of Oman; the decline of the Portuguese rule; the East African scene; three year siege of fort Jesus; the Portuguese attempt to reoccupy Mombasa; assessment of Portuguese achievements; East Africa after the Portuguese; Omani-Portuguese relations. - Andrada, Ruy Freyre de "Commentaries of Ruy Freyre de Andrada" ? Edited with an Introduction by C.R. Boxer. 328 pp. Robert M. McBride & Co., 1930, NY, USA. - Barendse, R. J. "The Arabian Seas, 1640-1700" ? vi + 465 pp. Leiden University, 1998, Leiden, NL. - Boxer, Ch. R. "Anglo-Portuguese Rivalry in the Persian Gulf, 1615-1635" In: Boxer, Ch. R. "Portuguese conquest and commerce in Southern Asia 1500-1750" 1985, London, UK. - Costa, Paolo M. "Historical interpretation of the territory of Muscat" In: AA. VV. "Oman studies: papers on archeology and history of Oman" 203 pp. Istituto Italiano per il Medio e l'Estremo Oriente, 1989, Roma, Italia. pp. 97-117 - Costa, Paolo "Musandam: Architecture and Material Culture of a Little Known Region of Oman" ? 250 pp. Vine House, 1995, - Dias Farinha, Antonio "Os Portugueses no Golfo Persico 1507-1538 " 266 pp. Dissertaçao Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa 1990 Lisboa. Also in: Mare Liberum, Revista de História dos Mares Nº 3 , pp. 1-159, 1991, Lisbon, Portugal. This book contain a vast collection of documents about the first years of Portuguese presence in the Persian Gulf. - Dinteman, Walter "Forts of Oman" ? 128 pp., numerous col. photogrs. 1993. A highly pictorial account of the role of the fort in Oman's history since the 16th century. - Gonçalves, Julio "Mascate, Albuquerque e os sultanatos do Oman 1507-1659" In: "Anais" do Club Militar Naval, pp. 421-435 1940, Lisboa, Portugal. - Kervran, Monik (ed.) "Bahrain in the XVI Century. An Impregnable Island" 93 pp. ills., plans and maps Ministry of Information State of Bahrain, 1988, Bahrain. pp. 7-34 -Kervran, Monique "Bahrain in the Sixteenth Century. Political and Military Events" pp. 35-84 -AA. VV. "The Bahrain Fort in the Sixteenth Century" pp. 85-92 -Moreira, Rafael "Inofre de Carvalho: a Renaissance Architect in the Gulf" - Kervran, Monik; Negre, Arlette; Michele Pirazzoli "Excavation of Qal'at al -Bahrain 1st Part (1977-1979)" ? 119 pp, plans, b&w & col photos Ministry of Information, 1982, Bahrain. - Muir, J. "Reminiscencias Portuguesas na Arabia Oriental" 13 pp. Separatas do boletim da Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa 1961 Lisboa, Portugal. - Ozbaran, Salih "The Ottoman Turks and the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf (1534-1581)" ? Thesis University of London, 1969, London, UK. - Ozbaran, Salih "The Ottoman response to European Expansion. Studies on Ottoman-Portugese relations in the Indian Ocean and Ottoman administration in the Arab lands during the Sixteenth Century" xv, 222 pp. b/w ills., 4 maps, Analecta Isisiana XII, The Isis Press, 1994, Istanbul, Turkey. The complete collection of English articles written by Salih Özbaran from 1972 till 1993. 1- Introduction: Articles: The present state of historiography, 1993; A review of Portuguese and Turkish sources, 1985. 2- Characteristics of an Empire: Articles: The Ottomans' role in the diffusion of fire-arms and military technology in Asia and Africa in the sixteenth century, 1986; The Ottoman empire and the spice routes in the sixteenth century, 1990; Expansion in the Southern seas, 1987. 3- Vicissitudes of the Sixteenth Century: Articles: A Turkish report on the Red Sea and the Portuguese in the Indian ocean (1525), 1978; An Imperial letter from Süleyman the Magnificent to dom João III concerning proposals from an Ottoman-Portuguese armistice [1544], 1990; Two letters of dom Álvaro de Noronha from Hormuz. Turkish activities along the coast of Arabia: 1550-1552, 1978; Bahrain in 1559. A narrative of Turco-Portuguese conflict in the Gulf, 1982; The Ottomans in confrontation with the Portuguese in the Red Sea after the conquest of Egypt in 1517, 1986; The Ottoman Turks and the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf, 1534-1581, 1972; The Ottomans in East Africa: a tribute to Cengiz Orhonlu, 1990. - Risso, Patricia "Oman and Muscat: an early modern history" ? xvii + 258 pp. Croom Helm, 1986, London, UK. - Serjeant, R. B. "The Portuguese off the South Arabian Coast: Hadrami chronicles. With Yemeni and European accounts of Dutch pirates off Mocha in the seventeenth century" ? XIV, 233 pp. With 2 maps and 14 plates, 1974, Beirut, Lebanon. Clarendon, 1963, Oxford - Slot, B. J. "The Arabs of the Gulf 1602-1784" ? xvii + 436 pp. Slot, 1993, Leidschendam. - Vine, Peter; Casey and Vine, Paula (eds.) "Oman in history" ? 560 pp. Immel Publishing, 1995, London, UK. - Ziolkowski, Michele "Al Bidyah excavations, 1999" In: "BSAI Nesletter" n°4, November 1999, British School of Archeology in Iraq. |